Virtù and Fortune

Where it surfaces

• Dedication

  The dedication emphasizes personal merit and virtue over fortune or inherited position, as seen in the contrast between Hiero and Perseus.

• Book I

  Machiavelli argues that a founder's virtù (skill, strength, wisdom) can overcome fortune, as seen in Romulus and Numa, but that fortune also plays a role in the rise and fall of states.

• I

  The founder's capacity (virtù) and the city's fortune are linked; Rome's virtue was maintained through strict laws despite fertile conditions.

• Of the various kinds of government; and to which of them the Roman commonwealth belonged.

  Rome's success is attributed to 'Fortune' and a series of accidents, yet also to the prudent response of its institutions, blending chance with wise adaptation.

• IV

  Machiavelli links virtuous actions to wise laws born from tumults, suggesting that good fortune and military prowess stem from underlying order and training.

• Chapter IX

  Cleomenes's failure is attributed to the power of the Macedonians and the weakness of other Greek states, illustrating the role of fortune in thwarting virtuous plans.

• Chapter X

  The chapter argues that good emperors relied on their own good lives and the goodwill of subjects (virtù), while bad emperors depended on armies and fortune, which failed them.

• XII

  The decay of religion leads to loss of virtue and unity, making Italy vulnerable to foreign domination.

• XVI

  The discussion of a people's ability to maintain freedom after becoming free touches on the role of virtù (civic virtue and capability) versus fortune (accidental circumstances), as a corrupted people cannot sustain liberty.

• Chapter XVII: That a corrupt people obtaining freedom can hardly preserve it

  The virtue of a single ruler like Dion, Timoleon, or Epaminondas can temporarily preserve freedom, but fortune and the brevity of life prevent lasting restoration.

• XIX

  Machiavelli discusses how a prince like Numa depends on fortune and circumstances, while one like Romulus, fortified with foresight and arms, can hold his state against all but irresistible force.

• XXIV

  The chapter emphasizes that individual virtue (e.g., Horatius's valor) must be rewarded, but fortune does not excuse subsequent crimes; the state must enforce justice regardless of past merits.

• XXV

  The prudent use of virtù in reforming institutions by skillfully managing appearances to control public perception.

• XXXIV

  The prudence of the Romans in designing the dictatorship (e.g., letting consuls appoint the dictator) reflects virtù in institutional design to manage fortune's emergencies.

• XLII

  The chapter illustrates how even virtuous men can be corrupted by ambition and opportunity, highlighting the fragility of moral character.

• LIII

  The chapter contrasts the prudence (virtù) of Fabius and the senate with the rashness of the people and demagogues like Varro, showing how fortune favors the cautious but the people are swayed by bold promises.

• LV

  The virtue and religious sentiment of the Roman people, as shown in their response to the senate's edict, are contrasted with the corruption of modern Italy, highlighting the role of civic virtue in sustaining a republic.

• LIX

  Examines how commonwealths and princes respond to fortune and necessity, with commonwealths showing greater virtue in keeping faith.

• LX

  The chapter emphasizes that personal excellence (virtù) rather than age or birth determines worthiness for high office.

• Book II

  The chapter explores how Roman success was due to both their virtù (skill, discipline) and favorable fortune, and how fortune can be controlled by wise institutions.

• I

  Central debate of the chapter: Machiavelli argues that Roman valour (virtù) and prudence, not fortune, were the primary causes of their empire.

• II

  The 'surpassing valour' of the Romans and the stubbornness of free peoples illustrate the role of virtù in maintaining freedom against odds.

• VII

  The Romans' frugality and careful cultivation of land reflect virtù, while the colony's success depends on prudent allocation and common resources.

• Why certain nations leave their ancestral seats and overflow the countries of others.

  The Romans' ability to withstand three desperate Gallic wars is attributed to their 'ordinary valour' (virtù), while later decline led to their overthrow by similar peoples.

• IX

  The accidental nature of the war with the Samnites contrasts with the deliberate design of Hannibal, showing how fortune and human action combine to shape conflicts.

• Chapter X: The True Sinews of War

  Machiavelli contrasts the role of fortune in battle with the necessity of virtù (good soldiers and prudent captains), arguing that fortune favors the prepared.

• XII

  The discussion of whether to carry war abroad or await it at home reflects the interplay between a prince's virtù (strategic boldness) and the fortune of circumstances.

• Chapter XVII: What importance the armies of the present day should allow to artillery; and whether the commonly received opinion concerning it be just.

  The decline of individual valor is attributed to lack of virtù (discipline and courage) in modern armies, not to fortune or technological change.

• Chapter XIX

  The chapter contrasts Roman virtù (discipline, frugality) with the corrupting fortune of luxury from conquests like Capua.

• XXIII

  The manly, truthful answer of the Privernum envoy is praised as a display of virtù that earns Roman citizenship, contrasting with timid or deceitful responses.

• XXIV

  Ottaviano Fregoso's decision to dismantle the citadel exemplifies virtù—relying on personal qualities rather than material defenses.

• Chapter XXVII

  The chapter contrasts prudent, measured action (virtù) with reckless overreaching driven by false hopes, which leaves outcomes to Fortune's whim.

• XXIX

  Fortune deliberately blinds men and overrides their virtù, yet men must still act with hope and adapt to her designs.

• On the Strength of Arms vs. Gold

  Fortune is depicted as favoring the strong (Rome) and abandoning the weak; Camillus's timely arrival is attributed to Fortune, but Rome's strength is due to its own virtù.

• Book III

  The chapter emphasizes the role of individual virtù in shaping outcomes, contrasting with the unpredictable force of fortune.

• Chapter I: The Necessity of Renewal in Republics and Sects

  The virtuous actions of individuals like Horatius Cocles and the Decii are presented as crucial for renewing the republic, demonstrating the power of virtù over fortune.

• IV

  The usurpers' lack of virtù in securing their position leads to their downfall, despite their initial fortune.

• VIII

  Manlius's failure illustrates that even great personal qualities (virtù) are ineffective if the times and the condition of the state are not aligned with one's ambitions.

• IX

  Fortune favors those whose methods align with the times; virtù includes the ability to adapt, but human nature often prevents change.

• XIII

  Discusses how a captain's virtù can shape an army, and how fortune (e.g., the death of Alexander) can leave a good army leaderless.

• XIV

  The effectiveness of stratagems depends on the captain's skill (virtù) and the unpredictable outcomes (fortune) when tricks are detected.

• Chapter XVI

  The chapter contrasts true worth (virtù) with fortune or circumstance, showing how peaceful times can obscure merit while war reveals it.

• How one humane act availed more with the men of Falerii, than all the might of the Roman arms

  The chapter contrasts virtuous acts (Camillus, Fabritius, Scipio) with Hannibal's opposite methods, exploring how different forms of virtù lead to success.

• XXII

  Both captains display virtù in their own ways—Manlius through harsh discipline and Valerius through humane treatment—yet both achieve the same success, highlighting the role of personal virtue in shaping outcomes.

• Why Camillus was banished from Rome

  Camillus's personal virtues (prudence, magnanimity) are admired, but his fortune is undermined by his own actions that provoke hatred.

• Of the poverty of Cincinnatus and of many other Roman citizens

  Cincinnatus's virtue and poverty enabled him to rise to the occasion and save the republic, illustrating how personal merit overcomes fortune.

• XXXI

  Machiavelli contrasts the constant virtù of Rome and Camillus with the fortune-dependent behavior of Venice, showing that true greatness remains unmoved by Fortune's changes.

• Chapter XXXIII: That to insure victory in battle you must inspire your men with confidence in one another and in you

  True valour and discipline (virtù) are contrasted with reliance on fortune or empty omens, as shown by the dictator's rebuke of the Praneste army's reliance on the Allia site.

• XXXVII

  The chapter highlights how a captain's virtù (prudence, skill) can mitigate the dangers of skirmishes and the fortune of encountering a new enemy, though the evil lies close to the good.

• Of the qualities of a captain in whom his soldiers can confide

  Valerius Corvinus's success is attributed to his personal virtù (skill and courage) rather than fortune or intrigue, and the chapter warns that advancement by chance diminishes reputation.

• XLII

  Posthumius's valiant action in offering himself as a prisoner after defeat cancels the disgrace of the loss, showing that glory can be won even in defeat through virtù.

• XLVI

  The persistence of family traits is attributed to training (virtù) rather than blood, showing how human effort shapes character.