Necessity and Reason of State

Where it surfaces

• I

  Cities are founded out of necessity (e.g., defense against enemies) or choice, and laws must enforce discipline to counteract the corrupting influence of ease.

• III

  The necessity of laws and institutions to compel good behavior when men are free to act on their evil inclinations.

• Chapter VI: Whether it was possible in Rome to contrive such a government as would have composed the differences between the commons and the senate

  Machiavelli emphasizes that human affairs cannot remain static and that necessity often forces a republic to expand, making the Roman model of accepting internal discord the more honorable and practical path.

• VII

  Machiavelli emphasizes the necessity of legal mechanisms to manage 'evil humours' and prevent the state from being overwhelmed by irregular violence or foreign intervention.

• Chapter VIII

  The Romans' decisive use of a dictator to suppress calumny illustrates the necessity of strong legal measures to preserve order.

• Chapter IX

  Machiavelli argues that extraordinary and violent actions are justified when necessary to found or reform a state for the common good.

• Of the religion of the Romans

  Divine authority was necessary to introduce unusual laws; a state without religion must rely on a prince's short-lived qualities.

• XII

  The Church's temporal policies, though self-serving, prevent Italian unification and necessitate foreign alliances.

• XIII

  Religion is employed as a necessary tool to overcome political impasses and maintain civic unity, even through deception.

• XIV

  When military necessity demanded battle, the Romans proceeded regardless of adverse omens, using clever interpretation to avoid undermining religious authority.

• XVI

  The chapter emphasizes the necessity of harsh measures, like slaying the sons of Brutus, to preserve a newly free state, illustrating the principle that the security of the state may require actions that would otherwise be considered unjust.

• XVIII

  Discusses the need for extraordinary, even violent, measures to restore order in a corrupt state, and the rarity of virtuous rulers employing such means.

• XIX

  The necessity for a ruler to resort to arms when neighbours hold him in contempt, as Ancus did, illustrates the principle that a state must adapt to preserve itself.

• That it is a great reproach to a prince or to a commonwealth to be without a national army

  Machiavelli argues that relying on one's own national army is a necessity for a prince or republic, and that failure to do so is a fault of the ruler, not of the people or circumstances.

• XXII

  The folly of risking the entire state on a small part of its forces and the unreliability of covenants under duress.

• That we should never hazard our whole fortunes where we put not forth our entire strength; for which reason to guard a defile is often hurtful.

  Machiavelli emphasizes the necessity of deploying full strength and avoiding risky gambles that could ruin the state.

• XXV

  The need to maintain the appearance of tradition while enacting fundamental reforms to ensure stability and acceptance.

• Chapter XXVI

  The chapter emphasizes that a new prince must use cruel and extraordinary means—such as uprooting populations and remaking institutions—out of necessity to secure his rule, even if these actions violate conventional morality.

• Chapter XXVII: That men seldom know how to be wholly good or wholly bad

  Pope Julius II's impetuous action and Baglioni's failure to seize a decisive moment illustrate the role of boldness and missed opportunities in political affairs.

• Chapter XXIX: Whether a people or a prince is the more ungrateful

  Implied in the prince's need to secure himself against a too-powerful captain, even at the cost of ingratitude.

• How Princes and Commonwealths May Avoid the Vice of Ingratitude

  The chapter presents the necessity for a captain to either submit or seize power, and for a commonwealth to structure its military to avoid internal threats.

• XXXI

  The state's need for effective military command outweighed the desire for strict punishment of errors.

• XXXII

  The senate's timely concession to the commons was a calculated move to preserve the state during an external threat.

• Chapter XXXIII

  The chapter discusses how temporizing with a growing mischief can be safer than violent opposition, and how the creation of the dictatorship was a necessary expedient for Rome's survival.

• XXXIV

  Machiavelli argues that a republic must have extraordinary powers (like a dictator) to respond to urgent dangers, as ordinary institutions are too slow.

• Why the creation of the Decemvirate in Rome, although brought about by the free and open suffrage of the citizens, was hurtful to the liberties of that republic.

  Machiavelli argues that the unchecked authority of the Decemvirate, even when legally conferred, inevitably leads to tyranny, showing that the form of power matters as much as its source.

• XXXVI

  Machiavelli argues that the Roman practice was necessary for the common good, preventing inexperience and ambition from harming the republic.

• XXXVII

  Machiavelli notes that the nobles' resistance to the law, though self-interested, was framed as serving the state, and that temporizing might have avoided ruin.

• XXXVIII

  The chapter emphasizes that weak republics are forced by necessity to act, and that prudent leaders accept the least harmful course, as the Roman senate did in allowing the Latins and Hernicians to arm themselves.

• XL: Of the creation of the Decemvirate in Rome, and what therein is to be noted.

  The decemvirs were driven by necessity to convene the Senate when faced with war, revealing the weakness of their position and the limits of their authority.

• XLI

  Appius's calculated deception and abrupt change of demeanor are analyzed as political strategies that backfired, illustrating the delicate balance between necessity and prudence in statecraft.

• XLII

  Discusses the necessity of laws to restrain evil appetites and prevent corruption, emphasizing the role of institutional safeguards.

• XLIV

  The advice to conceal intentions and not to threaten while asking reflects prudence in political negotiation.

• Chapter XLV

  Discusses the political necessity of either avoiding injury altogether or inflicting it all at once to prevent prolonged fear and unrest.

• XLVI

  The chapter discusses the necessity of curbing ambition through institutional ordinances to prevent a citizen from acquiring power that endangers freedom.

• XLIX

  The discussion of the dictator's power to execute justice in urgent cases reflects the need for extraordinary measures in times of necessity.

• Chapter L

  The necessity of ensuring that public business cannot be halted by the obstinacy of a few, as seen in the Roman and Venetian examples.

• LI

  The senate acted out of necessity to sustain prolonged wars, but framed the decision as a generous choice to gain popular favor.

• LII

  Discusses the strategic necessity of forestalling rivals and the dangers of miscalculation, as seen in Tullius's advice to the senate.

• LIII

  The senate's decision to grant Penula's request to avoid popular discontent illustrates the necessity of managing public opinion even at the cost of military disaster.

• LIV

  The senate used revered citizens to repress popular fury, showing the necessity of authority to maintain order.

• Chapter LVII

  Addresses the use of penalties and edicts to enforce obedience, and the necessity of severe measures against popular resentment over lost liberty or a beloved prince.

• LIX

  Discusses how fear and duress lead to broken faith, and how advantage can override honor in princes.

• I

  Rome's strategic use of allies and sequential warfare reflects a calculated reason of state, avoiding simultaneous great wars.

• II

  The discussion of how a prince's interests conflict with the state's well-being reflects the pragmatic calculus of power and governance.

• III

  Rome's use of both gentle and forceful methods to increase population illustrates pragmatic statecraft for imperial growth

• Chapter IV

  Argues that the Roman method of expansion was the most effective and necessary for lasting power, while other methods led to weakness or ruin.

• Of the methods followed by the Romans in making war

  Rome's pragmatic military methods—short wars, colonies, and spoils management—demonstrate a calculated approach to state power and enrichment.

• Why certain nations leave their ancestral seats and overflow the countries of others.

  The entire chapter is driven by the concept of necessity: famine, defeat, or overpopulation forces entire peoples to migrate and wage total war for survival.

• IX

  The Romans were forced to accept war with the Samnites to defend the Campanians as subjects, as declining would close the gate to future submissions and undermine their pursuit of glory and empire.

• Chapter X: The True Sinews of War

  Machiavelli argues that a prince must measure his true strength before war, not by wealth but by the capability of his own army, as necessity forces action.

• XI

  The chapter examines the practical necessity of assessing an ally's true capacity to provide aid, rather than relying on reputation alone.

• XII

  The chapter emphasizes how necessity drives valour in foreign soldiers and how strategic choices are dictated by the state's military and financial capacity.

• XIII

  Fraud is presented as a necessary means for both individuals and republics to rise from humble beginnings to greatness.

• XIV

  The chapter discusses the strategic necessity of not yielding to threats, as concession out of fear weakens a prince's position and invites further demands.

• XV

  The chapter emphasizes the necessity of decisive action in statecraft to avoid ruin, as hesitation and weak resolves harm the state.

• XVI

  The necessity of maintaining discipline and order in battle justifies the harsh measures taken by the consuls, reflecting the principle that extraordinary means are sometimes required for the survival of the state.

• Chapter XVII: What importance the armies of the present day should allow to artillery; and whether the commonly received opinion concerning it be just.

  Machiavelli argues that military tactics must adapt to necessity, and that artillery does not fundamentally change the need for disciplined infantry and decisive engagement.

• XVIII

  The chapter argues that military reform is necessary for the security and reputation of states, and that neglecting infantry leads to loss of territory.

• Chapter XIX

  Machiavelli argues that states are compelled to expand or face destruction, using the unique case of German free states as an exception.

• Of the dangers incurred by princes or republics who resort to auxiliary or mercenary arms

  Machiavelli argues that reliance on auxiliaries is a dangerous miscalculation, and that a prince must prioritize self-defense through national arms, even if it means accepting harsh terms with an enemy.

• XXI

  Advocates using force only as a last resort, preferring indirect rule to maintain authority and avoid hatred.

• XXII

  Machiavelli critiques the Pope's advisers' reasoning as plausible but false, showing how miscalculations based on deceptive appearances lead to poor statecraft.

• XXIII

  Machiavelli emphasizes that rulers must act decisively—either destroy or conciliate—to secure their state, avoiding half-measures that invite future danger.

• XXIV

  The chapter examines the practical utility of fortresses, concluding they are unnecessary for defense and harmful for internal control.

• XXV

  Machiavelli discusses the strategic necessity of avoiding war against a divided state, advocating instead for peaceful mediation to exploit divisions without provoking unification.

• XXVI

  The examples of Gabade and the Veientines show how insults can lead to unnecessary escalation and defeat, highlighting the need for strategic restraint in military and political affairs.

• Chapter XXVII

  Machiavelli argues that princes and republics must recognize when to accept peace or compromise, as refusing reasonable terms out of pride or false hope can lead to ruin.

• XXVIII

  The chapter illustrates how neglecting justice for reasons of state (honoring the Fabii) led to disaster.

• XXIX

  Heaven's will and Fortune's necessity drive events beyond human control, yet the state's survival depends on recognizing and working within these forces.

• On the Strength of Arms vs. Gold

  The chapter argues that states must arm their subjects and rely on military strength rather than gold, as a matter of necessity for survival and security.

• XXXI

  Machiavelli argues that exiles act out of desperate necessity to return home, making their promises unreliable and dangerous for rulers who trust them.

• XXXII

  The Romans chose the most advantageous and least costly methods of war, demonstrating a pragmatic approach driven by necessity and strategic calculation.

• XXXIII

  The Roman practice of delegating full power to commanders is justified by the practical necessities of war, where central deliberation would lead to delays and errors.

• Chapter I: The Necessity of Renewal in Republics and Sects

  Machiavelli discusses the necessity of severe punishments and external shocks (like the Gallic sack) to restore order, highlighting the pragmatic use of force and law for the state's survival.

• Chapter II: That on occasion it is wise to feign folly

  The chapter argues that when weak, it is necessary to feign loyalty to the prince for security and to enable future action, reflecting raison d'état.

• III

  Machiavelli insists that preserving a new government requires harsh measures against enemies, overriding personal or moral scruples.

• IV

  The chapter argues that a usurper must eliminate those he has deposed to be secure, as old injuries cannot be healed by benefits.

• How an hereditary king may come to lose his kingdom

  Machiavelli argues that princes must adhere to established laws and usages to preserve their authority; violating them weakens the foundations of power and invites rebellion.

• VI

  Machiavelli discusses the strategic calculations and risks involved in conspiracies, emphasizing that success often depends on fortune and the careful management of unforeseen events.

• Why it is that changes from freedom to servitude, and from servitude to freedom, are sometimes made without bloodshed, but at other times reek with blood.

  Machiavelli distinguishes between governments born of violence, which necessitate vengeful bloodshed upon change, and those rooted in communal authority, where only the prince is targeted.

• VIII

  The Roman people and nobles set aside personal ties and past merits to execute Manlius for the safety of the republic, acting out of political necessity.

• IX

  The necessity of changing methods with the times is crucial for the survival of both princes and republics.

• That a captain cannot escape battle when his enemy forces it on him at all risks

  Machiavelli emphasizes that a commander must fight when necessity compels—whether from lack of resources, the need to protect one's country, or the impossibility of avoiding engagement.

• XI

  Machiavelli argues that a prince or republic facing many enemies must use prudent methods, including bribery and division, to survive—justifying actions by necessity.

• XII

  The central theme: a prudent captain must create necessity for his own soldiers and remove it from the enemy, as necessity drives men to desperate courage and determines the outcome of battles and sieges.

• XIV

  Machiavelli discusses the strategic use of deception and surprise as necessary tools for victory, even if they involve trickery.

• XV

  The need for a dictator in Rome and the failure of divided commands illustrate the practical necessity of unified authority in war.

• XVII

  Claudius Nero justified his risky strategy by the necessity of recovering his honor, illustrating how personal necessity can conflict with the state's security.

• XVIII

  The examples show how commanders must act based on necessity and the need to gain timely intelligence, often determining the outcome of conflicts.

• XIX

  Discusses the necessity of punishment for subjects to prevent insolence, while advising moderation to avoid hatred.

• XXI

  Discusses how the love of change among men and the passions of love and fear make any method effective for a captain who can command authority, highlighting pragmatic considerations over moral absolutes.

• XXII

  Machiavelli argues that extraordinary commands require severity, and that such methods are necessary for the preservation of republican discipline and the common good, even at the cost of personal popularity.

• XXIV

  The senate's decision to extend Publius Philo's command was made for the public good, but it set a dangerous precedent that ultimately led to servitude.

• XXVII

  The chapter argues that harsh measures (execution) are sometimes necessary for the stability of the state, and that weaker methods like banishment or forced peace are less effective and more dangerous.

• XXVIII

  The appointment of a dictator to execute Melius demonstrates the use of extraordinary measures to preserve republican liberty.

• On Envy, Authority, and the Defense of a City

  Camillus's methodical enrollment of troops and the necessity of eliminating rivals through death (as with Moses) reflect the harsh measures required for effective governance and defense.

• XXXI

  Rome's refusal to ransom prisoners after Cannae and its arming of slaves and old men reflect the harsh necessities of survival and the priority of the state's preservation.

• Of the methods which some have used to make peace impossible

  The chapter illustrates how leaders deliberately commit atrocities to foreclose peace, using necessity to justify extreme measures that bind their followers to continued war.

• Chapter XXXV: Of the danger incurred in being the first to recommend new measures; and that the more unusual the measures the greater the danger

  Machiavelli advises that counselors should act with prudence and self-preservation, tempering their advocacy to avoid the dangers of being associated with unpopular or failed measures.

• XXXVI

  Papirius Cursor's argument for punishing disobedience highlights the necessity of strict discipline for the survival and effectiveness of the army.

• XXXVII

  Machiavelli discusses the necessity of abandoning indefensible positions to preserve reputation and overall military strength, as exemplified by Philip of Macedon and the Romans after Cannae.

• Of the qualities of a captain in whom his soldiers can confide

  The chapter discusses the necessity of training raw troops through mock warfare to overcome the terror of facing unfamiliar enemies, a pragmatic approach to military necessity.

• XXXIX

  Decius's actions illustrate the necessity of using all available means—including careful reconnaissance and terrain knowledge—to ensure the survival of the army in a critical situation.

• XL

  Machiavelli justifies fraud in war as necessary and glorious, reflecting the principle that the ends of military success justify deceptive means.

• XLI

  The chapter explicitly argues that when the country's existence is at stake, no consideration of justice, mercy, or honor should prevent any action that preserves the state.

• XLII

  Machiavelli argues that promises extorted by force, especially those affecting public welfare, are not binding and may be broken without shame when the compulsion is removed.

• XLIII

  Florence, driven by necessity, trusted the Emperor and was deceived, illustrating the danger of relying on untrustworthy allies.

• XLIV

  The Samnites, Pope Julius II, and M. de Foix all act out of necessity, using boldness to achieve strategic goals when conventional means fail.

• XLV

  Decius's self-sacrifice and Fabius's calculated reserve both reflect the necessity of adapting tactics to secure victory for the republic.

• XLVII

  The senate's decision to send messengers to Fabius underscores the priority of military necessity over private animosities.

• XLVIII

  The chapter illustrates how military necessity demands suspicion of apparent enemy blunders, as such blunders often conceal strategic fraud.

• XLIX

  The chapter emphasizes the need for new ordinances and severe punishments to maintain order and freedom in a commonwealth.