Custom and General Rules

Where it surfaces

• Section IV: Of the Connection or Association of Ideas

  The association of ideas is described as a 'gentle force' that operates uniformly, and Hume notes that long custom leads the imagination to follow regular patterns.

• Section VII: Of Abstract Ideas

  The chapter explains how general terms and abstract ideas function through custom and habit, which allow the mind to apply particular ideas universally.

• Section III: Of the Other Qualities of Our Idea of Space and Time

  The formation of abstract ideas of space and time relies on custom and the habitual association of similar impressions.

• Section IV: Objections Answered

  The mind forms fictions of perfect equality and right lines through custom, even when reason has ceased to support them.

• Section V: The Same Subject Continued

  Hume explains that we mistake words for ideas and confound ideas due to close relations, leading to false beliefs about vacuum and time.

• Part III: Of Knowledge and Probability

  The chapter discusses how belief arises from custom and habit, and how general rules influence our judgments.

• Section III: Why a Cause Is Always Necessary

  Hume argues that the opinion of the necessity of a cause arises from observation and experience, hinting at the role of custom in forming such beliefs.

• Section V: Of the Impressions of the Senses and Memory

  Custom and habit can infuse ideas with force and vivacity, making fictions appear as memories, as in the case of liars.

• Section VI: Of the Inference from the Impression to the Idea

  The transition from impression to idea is guided by custom and habit, not by rational necessity.

• Section VII: Of the Nature of the Idea or Belief

  Belief is formed by custom or association, not reason, as the mind passes from an impression to a related idea.

• Section VIII: Of the Causes of Belief

  Hume argues that belief is derived from custom and habit, not from rational inference, and that past experience operates insensibly.

• Section IX: Of the Effects of Other Relations and Other Habits

  Belief is derived from custom and habit, and the mind forms general rules based on experience, which can be overthrown by the want of resemblance.

• Section X: Of the Influence of Belief

  Hume argues that belief is derived from custom and habit, and that general rules correct the influence of imagination, as seen in the correction of sensory appearances.

• Section XI: Of the Probability of Chances

  Hume explains that belief in probable outcomes arises from custom and habit, as the mind is influenced by repeated experiences of similar events.

• Section XII: Of the Probability of Causes

  Hume emphasizes that our belief in the future resembling the past is derived entirely from habit, and that general rules, not direct perception, guide our judgments in cases of minute differences in probability.

• Section XIII: Of Unphilosophical Probability

  Hume explains how general rules, formed by custom, influence the imagination and can lead to unphilosophical probabilities, sometimes contradicting judgment.

• Section XIV: Of the Idea of Necessary Connection

  The idea of necessary connection is explained as a product of custom and habitual transition, not as a property of objects.

• Section XV: Rules by Which to Judge of Causes and Effects

  Hume's rules for causation are derived from experience and custom, guiding judgment in the absence of direct insight.

• Section XVI: Of the Reason of Animals

  Hume argues that both human and animal reasoning are based on custom and habit, and that this is the foundation of belief.

• Part IV: Of the Sceptical and Other Systems of Philosophy

  Hume emphasizes the role of custom and habit in shaping our beliefs about causation and the external world.

• Section I: Of Scepticism with Regard to Reason

  Belief is maintained by natural and easy conceptions, and the force of reasoning diminishes with complexity, showing the role of custom in preserving conviction.

• Section II: Of Scepticism with Regard to the Senses

  The belief in external existence is derived from the constancy and coherence of impressions, which are qualities that influence the imagination through custom and habit.

• Section III: Of the Ancient Philosophy

  Hume explains how custom leads us to infer connections and dependencies, and how general rules of the imagination produce philosophical fictions.

• Section IV: Of the Modern Philosophy

  Hume distinguishes between permanent and universal principles of imagination (like custom) and changeable, weak ones, using this to justify rejecting ancient philosophy's fictions while questioning modern philosophy's pretensions.

• Section VII: Conclusion of This Book

  Hume identifies experience and habit as the principles that instruct us in past conjunctions of objects and determine us to expect the same in the future, forming the basis of our beliefs.

• Section II: Of Pride and Humility, Their Objects and Causes

  The distinction between cause and object, and the subdivision of cause into quality and subject, reflect the general rules by which passions operate.

• Section III: Whence These Objects and Causes Are Derived

  Argues that causes of pride and humility operate through general qualities rather than distinct original principles.

• Section VI: Limitations of This System

  The fifth limitation highlights how general rules and custom influence the passions, guiding our judgments of value and rank.

• Section VIII: Of Beauty and Deformity

  Beauty is partly derived from custom and utility, and the constant nature of certain causes (like health) affects whether they produce pride or humility, showing the role of custom in our judgments.

• Section V: Of Our Esteem for the Rich and Powerful

  Hume considers and rejects the explanation that general rules from past experience of advantage lead us to esteem the rich, because the uniformity required for such rules is lacking.

• Section VI: Of Benevolence and Anger

  The conjunction of benevolence and anger with love and hatred is attributed to the original constitution of the mind, not to rational necessity.

• Section VII: Of Compassion

  The imagination is influenced by general rules from experience, leading us to feel compassion even when the sufferer is indifferent, as we overlook the exception and follow the usual connection.

• Section VIII: Of Malice and Envy

  The principle of adherence to general rules is invoked to explain how comparisons can impose on the senses and influence judgments.

• Part III: Of the Will and Direct Passions

  The discussion of how custom and habit influence belief and the passions, particularly in relation to probability and the influence of general rules on our emotions.

• Section I: Of Liberty and Necessity

  The inference from constant union is a product of custom and habit, which shapes our expectations and judgments about both natural and moral events.

• Section II: The Same Subject Continued

  Hume's argument relies on the constant conjunction of motives and actions, which is a matter of custom and habit, forming the basis of necessity.

• Section III: Of the Influencing Motives of the Will

  Hume discusses how calm passions, often mistaken for reason, are shaped by custom and general rules, influencing our judgments and actions.

• Section IV: Of the Causes of the Violent Passions

  The chapter discusses how custom and habit affect the force of passions, such as the effect of martial discipline and repeated practice.

• Section V: Of the Effects of Custom

  Central theme: custom's dual effects of facility and inclination, and its role in transforming passions.

• Section VI: Of the Influence of the Imagination on the Passions

  The chapter highlights how general ideas (like 'advantage') have less influence on the imagination than particular ones, and how recent experiences and suitability to one's way of life shape the force of passions.

• Section VIII: The Same Subject Continued

  Hume appeals to custom and habit in explaining why we associate height with goodness and lowness with evil, and why temporal distance affects our passions differently.

• Section IX: Of the Direct Passions

  The discussion of probability and the fluctuation of imagination relies on custom and habit in forming beliefs about uncertain events.

• Section II: Of the Origin of Justice and Property

  General rules of justice extend beyond particular instances, and custom and education reinforce the observance of these rules.

• Section III: Of the Rules Which Determine Property

  Custom and general rules determine property, as seen in the rules of occupation, prescription, and succession.

• Section IV: Of the Transference of Property by Consent

  The requirement of delivery is a general rule that aids the imagination, based on custom and the association of ideas.

• Section V: Of the Obligation of Promises

  The obligation of promises is established through custom and convention, not through natural reason or passion.

• Section VI: Some Farther Reflections Concerning Justice and Injustice

  Hume discusses how general inflexible rules of justice are contrary to the natural variability of human motives.

• Section VII: Of the Origin of Government

  The establishment of government relies on general rules of justice, which are enforced through custom and habit.

• Section VIII: Of the Source of Allegiance

  The obligation to obey government is based on general rules of interest that are avowed and prevalent in all times and places, similar to the rules of justice.

• Section IX: Of the Measures of Allegiance

  Hume discusses how moral obligation to allegiance is influenced by general rules, which can extend beyond their original basis but allow exceptions in cases of tyranny.

• Section X: Of the Objects of Allegiance

  Hume emphasizes that custom and general rules, rather than rational calculation, determine the objects of allegiance and the stability of possession.

• Section XI: Of the Laws of Nations

  The laws of nations are established by custom and general rules, as seen in the practice of the world teaching degrees of duty, and the implicit notion that moral rules arise from human conventions.

• Section XII: Of Chastity and Modesty

  Hume shows how general rules extend beyond their original basis, applying modesty to all women regardless of age, and how custom shapes moral sentiments.

• Section II: Of Greatness of Mind

  The chapter explains how a general rule against self-applause is formed due to the universal propensity to overvalue oneself, leading to the condemnation of pride even in men of merit.

• Section IV: Of Natural Abilities

  The decorum of qualities depends on experience and customary connections, such as gravity being associated with age.

• Appendix

  Hume's discussion of belief as a firmer conception relies on custom and habit, which are central to his philosophy.