# Two Treatises of Government — Themes

> Major themes in Two Treatises of Government by John Locke.

## Natural Rights and Liberty

Locke argues that all men are born free and equal, possessing natural rights to life, liberty, and property, which government must protect and cannot arbitrarily violate.

### Where it surfaces

- [Book I: Of Government](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/book-i-of-government): Locke implicitly argues for natural rights and liberty by denying that any man is born into subjection to an absolute monarch.
- [I](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/i): Locke asserts the natural liberty and equality of mankind, directly opposing Filmer's claim that no man is born free.
- [II: Of Paternal and Regal Power](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/ii-of-paternal-and-regal-power): Locke counters Filmer's claim that 'men are not naturally free' by asserting that governments are formed by the consent of men using their reason to unite into society, implying a natural state of freedom.
- [Of Adam's Title to Sovereignty by Creation](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iii-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-creation): Locke defends the possibility of natural freedom of mankind, arguing it does not contradict Adam's creation.
- [Of Adam’s Title to Sovereignty, by Donation, Gen. 1:28](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iv-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-donation-gen-1-28): Locke asserts that God gave the earth to all mankind in common, implying a natural right to subsistence and liberty from arbitrary power.
- [Of Adam’s Title to Sovereignty by Fatherhood](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/vi-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-fatherhood): Locke argues that men are naturally free and equal, rejecting Filmer's claim that birth imposes subjection.

## Consent of the Governed

Legitimate political authority derives from the consent of the people, who voluntarily unite into society and establish government through mutual agreement, not from divine right or paternal inheritance.

### Where it surfaces

- [Two Treatises of Government](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/two-treatises-of-government): The second treatise is described as an essay concerning the true original, extent, and end of civil government, implying a foundation in consent rather than divine right.
- [II: Of Paternal and Regal Power](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/ii-of-paternal-and-regal-power): Locke argues that if Filmer's foundation fails, governments must be 'made by contrivance, and the consent of men,' emphasizing the role of popular consent in political society.
- [X: Of the Heir to Adam’s Monarchical Power](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/x-of-the-heir-to-adam-s-monarchical-power): By exposing the incoherence of hereditary divine right, Locke implicitly argues that legitimate government must rest on consent rather than inheritance from Adam.
- [XI: Who Heir?](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xi-who-heir): Locke implies that without a clear divine designation, government must rest on human prudence and consent, not on an unknowable hereditary right.
- [Book II: Of Civil Government](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/book-ii-of-civil-government): Legitimate government is established through the consent of the people, not by hereditary or divine right.
- [Of Political or Civil Society](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/vii-of-political-or-civil-society): Locke emphasizes that civil society arises from voluntary compact and that all members, including the legislature, are subject to laws they have consented to.

## Limited Government and Rule of Law

Government power must be constrained by established, known laws, and the legislative and executive powers are limited to serving the public good, with no authority to act arbitrarily or despotically.

### Where it surfaces

- [II: Of Paternal and Regal Power](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/ii-of-paternal-and-regal-power): Locke warns that Filmer's doctrine of absolute, arbitrary power flatters ambition and tempts rulers to exceed their limits, implying the need for limited government and the rule of law.
- [Of Adam’s Title to Sovereignty, by the Subjection of Eve](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/v-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-the-subjection-of-eve): By denying that Genesis 3:16 grants political power, Locke implicitly supports the idea that governmental authority is limited and not derived from patriarchal or divine right.
- [VII: Of Fatherhood and Property Considered Together as Fountains of Sovereignty](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/vii-of-fatherhood-and-property-considered-together-as-fountains-of-sovereignty): By showing that two independent powers cannot coexist without strife, Locke implicitly argues for a unified, limited government structure rather than absolute, inherited rule.
- [VIII: Of the Conveyance of Adam’s Sovereign Monarchical Power](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/viii-of-the-conveyance-of-adam-s-sovereign-monarchical-power): By showing that Filmer's theory would legitimize any usurper who seizes supreme power, Locke implicitly argues for a government bound by law and consent, not mere force.
- [XI: Who Heir?](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xi-who-heir): Locke argues that Filmer's doctrine undermines all civil government by making obedience depend on an unknowable person, leaving no room for law or compact.
- [I](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/i): Locke defines political power as a right to make laws for the public good, distinguishing it from arbitrary or paternal authority.

## Right to Revolution

When a government violates its trust by acting against the people's liberty and property, the people have the right to resist, alter, or dissolve that government and establish a new one.

### Where it surfaces

- [III: Of the State of War](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iii-of-the-state-of-war): When the law is perverted to protect violence, the injured have no earthly appeal and must appeal to heaven, implying a right to resist unjust authority.
- [XIII: Of the Subordination of the Powers of the Commonwealth](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xiii-of-the-subordination-of-the-powers-of-the-commonwealth): Locke asserts that when the legislative or executive uses force without authority against the people, it creates a state of war, and the people have the right to remove such power by force.
- [XIV: Of Prerogative](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xiv-of-prerogative): Locke asserts that when rulers exercise power for harm, the people have no earthly judge and may appeal to heaven, justifying resistance against tyranny.
- [XVI: Of Conquest](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xvi-of-conquest): Locke asserts that the conquered and their descendants have the right to appeal to heaven and resist unjust governments imposed by force.
- [XVIII: Of Tyranny](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xviii-of-tyranny): Locke justifies resistance to unlawful force and argues that when governors act tyrannically, the people may oppose them.
- [Of the Dissolution of Government](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xix-of-the-dissolution-of-government): Locke asserts that when the legislative or prince acts contrary to trust—invading property or imposing arbitrary power—the people are absolved from obedience and may resist, resume their liberty, and establish a new government.

## Property and Labor

Property originates from an individual's labor mixing with common resources, and the preservation of property is a primary end of civil society, protected by law against arbitrary seizure.

### Where it surfaces

- [Of Adam’s Title to Sovereignty, by Donation, Gen. 1:28](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iv-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-donation-gen-1-28): Locke distinguishes between private dominion (property) and political sovereignty, arguing that property in land does not give power over persons.
- [Of Adam’s Title to Sovereignty by Fatherhood](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/vi-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-fatherhood): Implicitly addressed through the idea that begetting does not give a father property-like ownership over children.
- [VII: Of Fatherhood and Property Considered Together as Fountains of Sovereignty](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/vii-of-fatherhood-and-property-considered-together-as-fountains-of-sovereignty): The chapter explores the distinction between private dominion (property) and paternal power, questioning how property rights relate to political authority.
- [Of Monarchy, by Inheritance from Adam](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/ix-of-monarchy-by-inheritance-from-adam): Locke redefines property as a right based on necessity and self-preservation, rejecting Filmer's notion of exclusive dominion by donation.
- [Of Property](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/v-of-property): Locke establishes that labor, mixed with common resources, creates private property, and that this right is limited by the needs of others and the prohibition of waste.
- [Of Political or Civil Society](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/vii-of-political-or-civil-society): Locke states that the preservation of property is the end of government, and that insecurity of property drove people to establish civil society.

## Critique of Patriarchalism and Divine Right

Locke systematically refutes Sir Robert Filmer's theory that political power derives from Adam's fatherhood and divine donation, arguing such claims are unfounded and lead to slavery.

### Where it surfaces

- [Two Treatises of Government](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/two-treatises-of-government): The first treatise is explicitly dedicated to detecting and overthrowing Filmer's patriarchal and divine right principles.
- [Book I: Of Government](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/book-i-of-government): Locke systematically refutes Filmer's patriarchal theory that political power derives from Adam's fatherhood and divine grant.
- [I](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/i): Locke begins his systematic critique of Filmer's patriarchal theory, which derives absolute monarchy from Adam's supposed sovereignty.
- [II: Of Paternal and Regal Power](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/ii-of-paternal-and-regal-power): Locke systematically dismantles Filmer's identification of paternal authority with royal authority, criticizing the lack of definition and proof for 'fatherly authority' and its supposed divine right.
- [Of Adam's Title to Sovereignty by Creation](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iii-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-creation): Locke systematically dismantles Filmer's claim that Adam's creation by God established his absolute sovereignty over mankind.
- [Of Adam’s Title to Sovereignty, by Donation, Gen. 1:28](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iv-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-donation-gen-1-28): Locke systematically refutes Filmer's claim that Adam's donation from God established monarchical rule over all mankind.

## Separation of Powers

Locke distinguishes legislative, executive, and federative powers, advocating for their separation to prevent abuse and ensure laws are made and executed for the common good.

### Where it surfaces

- [XII: Of the Legislative, Executive, and Federative Power of the Commonwealth](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/xii-of-the-legislative-executive-and-federative-power-of-the-commonwealth): Locke argues for separating legislative and executive powers to prevent abuse and protect the public good, and notes the federative power is distinct but practically united with the executive.

## State of Nature and Social Contract

Humans originally exist in a state of perfect freedom and equality governed by natural law, but they enter into a social contract to form civil society for better protection of their rights.

### Where it surfaces

- [Of Adam's Title to Sovereignty by Creation](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iii-of-adam-s-title-to-sovereignty-by-creation): Implicit in Locke's rejection of Filmer's claim that Adam's creation immediately established political authority.
- [II: Of the State of Nature](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/ii-of-the-state-of-nature): Locke defines the state of nature as a state of perfect freedom and equality, governed by the law of nature, which forms the basis for political society through consent.
- [III: Of the State of War](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iii-of-the-state-of-war): Locke distinguishes the state of nature (peace, reason, no common superior) from the state of war (force, enmity, no appeal), showing how the social contract aims to avoid war.
- [IV: Of Slavery](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/iv-of-slavery): Locke explains that a compact between a conqueror and a captive ends the state of war and slavery, as no man can consent to give another power over his own life.
- [Of Property](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/v-of-property): The chapter describes a state of nature where property arises from labor without explicit consent, and later societies use compact to regulate property.
- [VI: Of Paternal Power](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/two_treatises_of_government_se/chapters/vi-of-paternal-power): Locke describes how fathers' authority in families arose from tacit consent of children, not natural right, illustrating the social contract.

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