# The Theory of Moral Sentiments — Themes

> Major themes in The Theory of Moral Sentiments by Adam Smith.

## Sympathy as the Foundation of Moral Judgment

Smith argues that moral judgments arise from our capacity for sympathy, or 'fellow-feeling,' where we imaginatively place ourselves in another's situation to evaluate the propriety of their emotions and actions.

### Where it surfaces

- [The Theory of Moral Sentiments](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/the-theory-of-moral-sentiments): Smith argues that moral approval or disapproval arises from our capacity to sympathize with the motives and feelings of others, forming the core of moral evaluation.
- [Part I: Of the Propriety of Action](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/part-i-of-the-propriety-of-action): Smith argues that sympathy—our ability to share the feelings of others—is the basis for judging the propriety of actions.
- [Section I: Of the Sense of Propriety](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-i-of-the-sense-of-propriety): The chapter introduces sympathy as the mechanism through which we approve or disapprove of others' passions.
- [I: Of Sympathy](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-of-sympathy): Smith defines sympathy as fellow-feeling with any passion, not just sorrow, and argues it is the basis for moral judgment through imagining ourselves in another's situation.
- [Of the Pleasure of Mutual Sympathy](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/ii-of-the-pleasure-of-mutual-sympathy): The chapter introduces sympathy as a natural principle that grounds moral approval and disapproval, emphasizing the pleasure of mutual fellow-feeling and the pain of its absence.
- [Of the Manner in Which We Judge of the Propriety or Impropriety of the Affections of Other Men, by Their Concord or Dissonance with Our Own](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-manner-in-which-we-judge-of-the-propriety-or-impropriety-of-the-affections-of-other-men-by-their-concord-or-dissonance-with-our-own): The chapter argues that approval or disapproval of others' passions is fundamentally based on the concord or dissonance with our own sympathetic emotions, establishing sympathy as the core mechanism of moral judgment.

## The Impartial Spectator

Smith introduces the concept of an impartial spectator within each person, an internalized observer whose imagined perspective guides self-evaluation, self-command, and the pursuit of praiseworthiness beyond mere praise.

### Where it surfaces

- [The Theory of Moral Sentiments](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/the-theory-of-moral-sentiments): The concept of an impartial spectator within each person is introduced as the mechanism for self-judgment and moral conscience.
- [Part I: Of the Propriety of Action](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/part-i-of-the-propriety-of-action): The concept of an impartial spectator is introduced as a mechanism for self-evaluation and moral judgment.
- [Section I: Of the Sense of Propriety](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-i-of-the-sense-of-propriety): The concept of an impartial spectator is introduced as the standard for propriety in moral judgments.
- [Of the Manner in Which We Judge of the Propriety or Impropriety of the Affections of Other Men, by Their Concord or Dissonance with Our Own](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-manner-in-which-we-judge-of-the-propriety-or-impropriety-of-the-affections-of-other-men-by-their-concord-or-dissonance-with-our-own): The discussion of how we judge others by bringing their case home to our own breast and using our own sentiments as a standard implicitly introduces the concept of an impartial spectator within ourselves.
- [The Same Subject Continued](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iv-the-same-subject-continued): Smith elaborates on how individuals view their own situation through the eyes of others, adjusting their passions to achieve concord with spectators, a core mechanism of the impartial spectator.
- [Of the Amiable and Respectable Virtues](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/v-of-the-amiable-and-respectable-virtues): The impartial spectator is central to the chapter's analysis, as the standard for self-command and the basis for judging the propriety of emotions and actions.

## Virtue as Propriety and Self-Command

Virtue is defined by the propriety of emotions and actions—balancing amiable virtues like humanity with respectable virtues like self-command, and achieving harmony between the actor's sentiments and the spectator's sympathy.

### Where it surfaces

- [Of the Amiable and Respectable Virtues](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/v-of-the-amiable-and-respectable-virtues): The chapter explicitly defines amiable virtues as stemming from sensibility and respectable virtues as stemming from self-command, emphasizing that virtue is excellence beyond common propriety.
- [Section II: Of the Degrees of the Different Passions Which Are Consistent with Propriety](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-ii-of-the-degrees-of-the-different-passions-which-are-consistent-with-propriety): The discussion of mediocrity in passions and the distinction between decent and indecent expressions relates to the concept of propriety as a measure of virtue.
- [Of the Passions Which Take Their Origin from the Body](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-of-the-passions-which-take-their-origin-from-the-body): Temperance is defined as restraining bodily appetites within bounds of propriety, and constancy in pain is admired as a virtue of self-command.
- [Of the Unsocial Passions](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-unsocial-passions): The chapter highlights magnanimity and self-command as essential for ennobling the expression of unsocial passions like anger and resentment.
- [IV: Of the Social Passions](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iv-of-the-social-passions): The chapter contrasts the propriety of benevolent affections with the impropriety of excessive hatred and resentment, which are deemed unfit for civil society.
- [I: That Though Our Sympathy with Sorrow Is Generally a More Lively Sensation Than Our Sympathy with Joy, It Commonly Falls Much More Short of the Violence of What Is Naturally Felt by the Person Principally Concerned](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-that-though-our-sympathy-with-sorrow-is-generally-a-more-lively-sensation-than-our-sympathy-with-joy-it-commonly-falls-much-more-short-of-the-violence-of-what-is-naturally-felt-by-the-person-principally-concerned): The chapter highlights the propriety of mastering sorrow in adversity, as seen in Cato and Socrates, and the admiration such self-command elicits.

## Justice as the Pillar of Society vs. Beneficence as Ornament

Smith distinguishes justice, which is essential for society's existence and enforced by punishment, from beneficence, which is less essential and recommended but not compelled; injustice destroys society, while lack of beneficence only diminishes its comfort.

### Where it surfaces

- [Part II: Of Merit and Demerit; or, of the Objects of Reward and Punishment](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/part-ii-of-merit-and-demerit-or-of-the-objects-of-reward-and-punishment): The distinction between merit (reward) and demerit (punishment) lays the groundwork for understanding justice as essential to social order.
- [Section I: Of the Sense of Merit and Demerit](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-i-of-the-sense-of-merit-and-demerit): The introduction of merit (reward) and demerit (punishment) lays groundwork for later distinctions between justice and beneficence.
- [I: That Whatever Appears to Be the Proper Object of Gratitude, Appears to Deserve Reward; and That, in the Same Manner, Whatever Appears to Be the Proper Object of Resentment, Appears to Deserve Punishment](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-that-whatever-appears-to-be-the-proper-object-of-gratitude-appears-to-deserve-reward-and-that-in-the-same-manner-whatever-appears-to-be-the-proper-object-of-resentment-appears-to-deserve-punishment): The chapter discusses reward and punishment as grounded in gratitude and resentment, which are foundational to justice and social order.
- [V: The Analysis of the Sense of Merit and Demerit](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/v-the-analysis-of-the-sense-of-merit-and-demerit): The discussion of merit (beneficence) and demerit (injustice) highlights the distinction between virtuous actions and the punishment of crimes.
- [Section II: Of Justice and Beneficence](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-ii-of-justice-and-beneficence): Smith argues that justice is essential for the existence of society, while beneficence is a desirable but not enforceable virtue.
- [I: Comparison of Those Two Virtues](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-comparison-of-those-two-virtues): Smith contrasts justice, which is enforceable and negative, with beneficence, which is free and positive. Justice prevents harm and is the proper object of resentment and punishment; beneficence excites gratitude and reward but cannot be compelled.

## Corruption of Moral Sentiments by Wealth and Rank

Smith observes that society often admires wealth and greatness more than wisdom and virtue, leading to a corruption of moral sentiments where the rich are respected undeservedly and the poor are contemptible despite their merit.

### Where it surfaces

- [Section III: Of the Effects of Prosperity and Adversity Upon the Judgment of Mankind with Regard to the Propriety of Action; and Why It Is More Easy to Obtain Their Approbation in the One State Than in the Other](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-iii-of-the-effects-of-prosperity-and-adversity-upon-the-judgment-of-mankind-with-regard-to-the-propriety-of-action-and-why-it-is-more-easy-to-obtain-their-approbation-in-the-one-state-than-in-the-other): The chapter explores how prosperity biases moral judgment, making it easier to gain approbation in success than in adversity.
- [II: Of the Origin of Ambition, and of the Distinction of Ranks](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/ii-of-the-origin-of-ambition-and-of-the-distinction-of-ranks): Smith argues that the natural disposition to sympathize with joy rather than sorrow leads us to admire the rich and powerful for their station, not their virtue, corrupting moral judgment.
- [III: Of the Corruption of Our Moral Sentiments, Which Is Occasioned by This Disposition to Admire the Rich and the Great, and to Despise or Neglect Persons of Poor and Mean Condition](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-corruption-of-our-moral-sentiments-which-is-occasioned-by-this-disposition-to-admire-the-rich-and-the-great-and-to-despise-or-neglect-persons-of-poor-and-mean-condition): The central theme of the chapter: the disposition to admire the rich and powerful corrupts moral judgments, leading people to value wealth over virtue.
- [III: Of the Final Cause of This Irregularity of Sentiments](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-final-cause-of-this-irregularity-of-sentiments): Though not directly about wealth, the chapter addresses how the 'irregularity of sentiments'—judging by event rather than design—can discourage virtue and distort moral evaluation, a theme related to the corruption of moral sentiments.
- [Of the Beauty Which the Appearance of Utility Bestows Upon All the Productions of Art, and of the Extensive Influence of This Species of Beauty](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-of-the-beauty-which-the-appearance-of-utility-bestows-upon-all-the-productions-of-art-and-of-the-extensive-influence-of-this-species-of-beauty): The chapter examines how admiration for the rich and great often focuses on the 'artful adjustment' of means rather than genuine happiness, leading to a misplaced valuation of wealth and status.
- [Section I: Of the Character of the Individual, So Far as It Affects His Own Happiness; or of Prudence](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-i-of-the-character-of-the-individual-so-far-as-it-affects-his-own-happiness-or-of-prudence): The desire for rank and credit among equals is a stronger motive for acquiring fortune than mere bodily necessities, and great conquerors are admired despite their violence.

## Influence of Custom and Fashion on Morality

Custom and fashion shape our notions of beauty and moral approval, leading to varied and sometimes discordant moral opinions across different ages, nations, and social ranks, though they can also reinforce natural propriety.

### Where it surfaces

- [Part V: Of the Influence of Custom and Fashion Upon the Sentiments of Moral Approbation and Disapprobation](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/part-v-of-the-influence-of-custom-and-fashion-upon-the-sentiments-of-moral-approbation-and-disapprobation): The chapter is entirely dedicated to exploring how custom and fashion affect moral approbation and disapprobation, shaping our perceptions of virtue and propriety.
- [I: Of the Influence of Custom and Fashion Upon Our Notions of Beauty and Deformity](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-of-the-influence-of-custom-and-fashion-upon-our-notions-of-beauty-and-deformity): The chapter centrally argues that custom and fashion shape our notions of beauty and deformity, and by extension moral sentiments, leading to varied judgments across cultures and times.
- [II: Of the Influence of Custom and Fashion Upon Moral Sentiments](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/ii-of-the-influence-of-custom-and-fashion-upon-moral-sentiments): Smith argues that custom and fashion shape our moral sentiments, though they cannot entirely overturn our natural sense of right and wrong. He illustrates this with examples from different professions, nations, and historical periods.

## Self-Love and the Social Order

Smith examines how self-love, when balanced with sympathy and the impartial spectator, contributes to social harmony, but also critiques systems that reduce all moral approbation to self-interest, as in Hobbes and Mandeville.

### Where it surfaces

- [Of the Pleasure of Mutual Sympathy](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/ii-of-the-pleasure-of-mutual-sympathy): Smith directly critiques the view that sympathy arises from self-interested considerations, arguing instead that it is an immediate and disinterested source of pleasure and pain.
- [Of the Selfish Passions](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/v-of-the-selfish-passions): Smith discusses how envy and self-interest shape responses to sudden fortune, and how the upstart's behavior reflects awareness of others' self-love.
- [II: Of the Origin of Ambition, and of the Distinction of Ranks](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/ii-of-the-origin-of-ambition-and-of-the-distinction-of-ranks): The pursuit of wealth and rank is driven by vanity and the desire for attention, which underpins social emulation and the distinction of ranks.
- [III: Of the Corruption of Our Moral Sentiments, Which Is Occasioned by This Disposition to Admire the Rich and the Great, and to Despise or Neglect Persons of Poor and Mean Condition](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-corruption-of-our-moral-sentiments-which-is-occasioned-by-this-disposition-to-admire-the-rich-and-the-great-and-to-despise-or-neglect-persons-of-poor-and-mean-condition): The admiration of the rich and great is described as necessary for maintaining social distinctions, linking self-love to the structure of society.
- [Of the Influence and Authority of Conscience](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-influence-and-authority-of-conscience): Smith examines the tension between natural self-love and the need for social harmony, arguing that conscience overrides selfish impulses to maintain justice and propriety.
- [Of the Nature of Self-Deceit, and of the Origin and Use of General Rules](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iv-of-the-nature-of-self-deceit-and-of-the-origin-and-use-of-general-rules): Smith examines how self-love leads to partial judgments and self-deceit, but general rules formed from social experience help counteract this bias.

## Desire for Praiseworthiness vs. Mere Praise

Smith distinguishes the natural desire to be worthy of praise from the desire for praise itself, arguing that true moral satisfaction comes from being praiseworthy in the eyes of the impartial spectator, not from external applause.

### Where it surfaces

- [III: Of the Corruption of Our Moral Sentiments, Which Is Occasioned by This Disposition to Admire the Rich and the Great, and to Despise or Neglect Persons of Poor and Mean Condition](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-corruption-of-our-moral-sentiments-which-is-occasioned-by-this-disposition-to-admire-the-rich-and-the-great-and-to-despise-or-neglect-persons-of-poor-and-mean-condition): Smith discusses how people desire to be respected and admired, but often pursue wealth and greatness (mere praise) rather than true virtue (praiseworthiness).
- [Part III: Of the Foundation of Our Judgments Concerning Our Own Sentiments and Conduct, and of the Sense of Duty](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/part-iii-of-the-foundation-of-our-judgments-concerning-our-own-sentiments-and-conduct-and-of-the-sense-of-duty): Explored in the context of self-judgment and the distinction between deserving praise and merely receiving it.
- [Of the Principle of Self-Approbation and of Self-Disapprobation](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/i-of-the-principle-of-self-approbation-and-of-self-disapprobation): The chapter distinguishes between being the object of approbation and deserving it, highlighting the importance of praiseworthiness over mere praise.
- [II: Of the Love of Praise, and of That of Praiseworthiness; and of the Dread of Blame, and of That of Blameworthiness](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/ii-of-the-love-of-praise-and-of-that-of-praiseworthiness-and-of-the-dread-of-blame-and-of-that-of-blameworthiness): The central theme of the chapter: Smith distinguishes the desire for praise (the favorable sentiments of others) from the desire for praiseworthiness (being the proper object of those sentiments), arguing the latter is primary and not derived from the former.
- [Of the Influence and Authority of Conscience](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/iii-of-the-influence-and-authority-of-conscience): The chapter emphasizes the internal desire to be worthy of praise (conscience) over external approval, as seen in the dread of 'inward disgrace' and the love of 'honourable and noble' character.
- [Section III: Of Self-Command](https://www.betterreads.dev/discover/the_theory_of_moral_sentiments_se/chapters/section-iii-of-self-command): The wise and virtuous man directs attention to the ideal of perfection (praiseworthiness) rather than mere comparison with others.

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