Themes & patterns

Foreword by the Historian

The foreword sets up the exposure of Justinian and Theodora's depravity, warning future generations about the dangers of tyrannical rule.

The Secret History

Justinian and Theodora's systematic corruption of offices, confiscation of property, and tyrannical rule over the empire.

Ignorance of the Emperor Justin, and His Stencilled Signature, and How His Nephew Justinian Was the Virtual Ruler

Justinian's rule is depicted as a second pestilence, corrupting all noble traditions and bringing ruin through murder and seizure of property.

VII: Outrages of the Blues

Justinian uses the Blues faction to destabilize the state, turning the government into a tool for oppression and lawlessness.

Character and Appearance of Justinian

The Emperor's rule is characterized by corruption, including spending public money recklessly, accepting bribes, and driving universal poverty through confiscation.

XI: How the Defender of the Faith Ruined His Subjects

Justinian abolishes established laws and offices, renames everything after himself, and loots the wealthy for personal gain.

Foreword by the Historian

Procopius admits he had to hide the truth in his earlier works due to fear, highlighting the deception required to survive under a tyrannical regime.

The Secret History

The gap between public piety and private depravity, as seen in the court's moral hypocrisy and secret machinations.

How the Great General Belisarius Was Hoodwinked by His Wife, Whose Lover Became a Monk

Antonina's elaborate lies and Belisarius's willful blindness exemplify the theme of deception, as the general prefers to distrust his own eyes rather than confront his wife's infidelity.

II: How Belated Jealousy Affected Belisarius’s Military Judgment, to the Joy of the Enemy

Antonina deceives John the Cappadocian with oaths, and Belisarius swears sacred oaths to Photius while still loving his wife, planning revenge but not harm to her.

Character and Appearance of Justinian

Justinian is portrayed as deceitful, false, hypocritical, and two-faced, never truthful and skilled in dissembling his thoughts.

X: How Justinian Created a New Law Permitting Him to Marry a Courtesan on Her Promise to Repent Her Past; and the Truth About the Apparent Quarrels of a Happy Pair

Justinian and Theodora feign opposition to each other to manipulate public opinion and consolidate power.

How the Great General Belisarius Was Hoodwinked by His Wife, Whose Lover Became a Monk

Antonina uses her influence over Belisarius to murder witnesses and even Constantine, demonstrating how personal power can be abused for revenge and to cover up crimes.

II: How Belated Jealousy Affected Belisarius’s Military Judgment, to the Joy of the Enemy

Belisarius prioritizes personal jealousy over military duty, withdrawing the army and abandoning strategic objectives, while Antonina uses her influence to slander her son.

III: Showing the Danger of Interfering with a Woman’s Intrigues, Especially When the Woman Is the Friend of an Empress

Theodora tortures Photius and Belisarius's friends, violates sanctuary, and forces reconciliation.

How Theodora, Revenging Her Dear Antonina, Humiliated the Conqueror of Africa and Italy

Theodora uses her imperial authority to imprison Buzes without trial, strip Belisarius of command, and confiscate his wealth for personal revenge.

How Theodora Tricked the General’s Daughter Into a Liaison with the Empress’s Nephew, and Belisarius Became a Public Laughing Stock

Theodora forces a young girl into a sexual liaison to secure wealth, and protects Sergius despite his crimes, showing imperial abuse.

Ignorance of the Emperor Justin, and His Stencilled Signature, and How His Nephew Justinian Was the Virtual Ruler

Justin's inability to govern led to the stenciled signature system, while Justinian abused his virtual rule to kill rivals and destroy the Roman state.

How the Great General Belisarius Was Hoodwinked by His Wife, Whose Lover Became a Monk

The open adultery, lack of shame, and brutal murders within the household of a great general highlight the moral decay among the elite of the Byzantine court.

How Theodora, Revenging Her Dear Antonina, Humiliated the Conqueror of Africa and Italy

Belisarius, a great conqueror, is reduced to licking his wife's feet and declaring himself her slave, illustrating the corruption of personal honor.

How Theodora Tricked the General’s Daughter Into a Liaison with the Empress’s Nephew, and Belisarius Became a Public Laughing Stock

Belisarius's subservience to Antonina, his broken oaths, and the public mockery highlight moral decay among the elite.

IX: And How Theodora, Most Depraved of All Courtesans, Won His Love

Theodora's shameless behavior on and off the stage exemplifies the moral decay of the era.

X: How Justinian Created a New Law Permitting Him to Marry a Courtesan on Her Promise to Repent Her Past; and the Truth About the Apparent Quarrels of a Happy Pair

The marriage of a senator to a courtesan, and the shamelessness of the imperial couple, exemplify moral decay.

XII: Proving That Justinian and Theodora Were Actually Fiends in Human Form

The chapter portrays Justinian and Theodora as demonic entities, indulging in greed, lust, and supernatural corruption, reflecting moral decay.

II: How Belated Jealousy Affected Belisarius’s Military Judgment, to the Joy of the Enemy

Chosroes is accused by his own nobles of breaking his plighted word by invading in peacetime, and the Roman army suffers from Belisarius's neglect of duty.

III: Showing the Danger of Interfering with a Woman’s Intrigues, Especially When the Woman Is the Friend of an Empress

Innocent men are tortured and exiled for their association with Photius and Belisarius.

How Theodora, Revenging Her Dear Antonina, Humiliated the Conqueror of Africa and Italy

Belisarius is condemned without proof, his property seized on false pretexts, and his life spared only through his wife's intervention.

How Theodora Tricked the General’s Daughter Into a Liaison with the Empress’s Nephew, and Belisarius Became a Public Laughing Stock

Sergius murders ambassadors under safe conduct, and Solomon kills his rescuer Pegasius, yet both escape justice through imperial favor.

Ignorance of the Emperor Justin, and His Stencilled Signature, and How His Nephew Justinian Was the Virtual Ruler

Justinian murdered Amantius on a flimsy charge and killed Vitalian despite sacred pledges, showing complete disregard for justice.

VII: Outrages of the Blues

Murders and robberies go unpunished, judges rule out of fear, and the legal system collapses under the weight of factional violence.

Foreword by the Historian

Procopius contrasts his earlier public chronicle with this secret history, emphasizing the need to reveal what really happened behind the official narrative.

III: Showing the Danger of Interfering with a Woman’s Intrigues, Especially When the Woman Is the Friend of an Empress

The senator Theodosius is tortured and driven mad; Photius suffers brutal treatment.

VII: Outrages of the Blues

Citizens live in constant fear, are robbed, killed, or forced into submission, with no hope of justice or redress.

XI: How the Defender of the Faith Ruined His Subjects

Massacres, forced conversions, loss of livelihoods, and mass emigration due to Justinian's policies.

XVIII: How Justinian Killed a Trillion People

The chapter emphasizes the immense suffering and death of ordinary Romans, barbarians, and provincials due to war, famine, disease, and civil strife.

XIX: How He Seized All the Wealth of the Romans and Threw It Away in the Sea and on the Barbarians

Roman subjects are pillaged and their wealth given to barbarians, causing widespread suffering.

XXI: The Sky Tax, the Selling of All Offices, and How Border Armies Were Forbidden to Punish Invading Barbarians

Subjects were robbed by corrupt magistrates, enslaved by Huns, and even punished when they tried to rescue their families from barbarian raiders.